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Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). This was a significant issue in the 
attempt to create a .xxx Top-level domain and sparked greater interest i
n Alternative DNS roots that would be beyond the control of any single
 country. [edit] Truth in Domain Names Act In the United States, the "
Truth in Domain Names Act", in combination with the PROTECT Act, forbids
 the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting people
 into viewing a visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct on the Internet
. [edit] See also * Cybersquatting * Domain hack * Dynamic DNS * DNS cache 
poisoning * DNSSEC * ICANN * Root nameserver * DNS hosting service * DNS 
management software * EveryDNS * Geodomain * NBNS * NIS * Hesiod * OpenDNS
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Domain Name Registration - Save will primarily discuss registered 
domain names. See the Domain Name System article for technical discussions
 about general domain names and the hostname article for further information 
about the most common type of domain name. Contents [hide] * 1 Overview *
 2 Examples * 3 Top-level domains * 4 Other-level domains * 
5 Official assignment * 6 Uses and abuses * 7 Generic domain names —
 problems arising out of unregulated name selection * 8 Unconventional
 domain names * 9 Commercial resale of domain names * 10 Domain name confusion
 * 11 See also * 12 External links [edit] Overview The most common types of 
domain names are hostnames that provide more memorable names to stand in for 
numeric IP addresses. They allow for any service to move to a different
 location in the topology of the Internet (or an intranet), which would
 then have a different IP address. By allowing the use of unique alphabetical 
addresses instead of numeric ones, domain names allow Internet users to more
 easily find and communicate with web sites and other server-based services.
 The flexibility of the domain name system allows multiple IP addresses to be 
assigned to a single domain name, or multiple domain names to be assigned to 
a single IP address. This means that one server may have multiple roles (such
 as hosting multiple independent Web sites), or that one role can be spread 
among many servers. One IP address can also be assigned to several servers, 
as used in anycast and hijacked IP space. Hostnames are restricted to the 
ASCII letters "a" through "z' (case-insensitive), the digits "0" through "
9", and the hyphen, with some other restrictions. Registrars restrict the 
domains to valid hostnames, since, otherwise, they would be useless. The 
Internationalized domain name (IDN) system has been developed to bypass 
the restrictions on character allowances in hostnames, making it easier 
for non-english alphabets to use the Internet. The underscore character 
is frequently used to ensure that a domain name is not recognized as a
 hostname, for example with the use of SRV records, although some older systems,
 such as NetBIOS did allow it. Due to confusion and other reasons, domain names 
with underscores in them are sometimes used where hostnames are required. [edit]
 Examples The following example illustrates the difference between a URL (Uniform 
Resource Locator) and a domain name: URL: http://www.example.net/index.html Domain 
name: www.example.net Registered domain name: example.net As a general rule, the IP
 address and the server name are interchangeable. For most Internet services, the
 server will not have any way to know which was used. However, the explosion of 
interest in the Web means that there are far more Web sites than servers. To accommodate
 this, the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) specifies that the client tells the server
 which name is being used. This way, one server with one IP address can provide different
 sites for different domain names. This feature goes under the name virtual hosting and 
is commonly used by Web hosts. For example, as referenced in RFC 2606 (Reserved Top Level 
DNS Names), the server at IP address 192.0.34.166 handles all of the following sites:
 example.com www.example.com example.net www.example.net example.org www.example.org 
When a request is made, the data corresponding to the hostname requested is served to 
the user. [edit] Top-level domains Every domain name ends in a top-level domain 
(TLD) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or 
more characters), or a two characters territory code based on ISO-3166 (there are
 few exceptions and new codes are integrated case by case). Top-level domains are 
sometimes also called first-level domains. The generic top-level domain (gTLD)
 extensions are: [show] v • d • e Generic top-level domains Unsponsored .biz .com 
.edu .gov .info .int .mil .name .net .org Sponsored .aero .cat .coop .jobs .mobi .
museum .pro .travel Infrastructure .arpa .root Startup phase .asia .tel Proposed .
berlin .bzh .cym .gal .geo .kid .kids .mail .nyc .post .sco .web .xxx Deleted/
retired .nato Reserved .example .invalid .localhost .test Pseudo-domains .bitnet
 .csnet .local .onion .uucp Unofficial see Alternative DNS roots See also: Country 
code top-level domains The country code top-level domain (ccTLD) extensions are: 
[show] v • d • e Country code top-level domains Active: .ac .ad .ae .af .ag .ai .
al .am .an .ao .aq .ar .as .at .au .aw .ax .az .ba .bb .bd .be .bf .bg .bh .bi .bj 
.bm .bn .bo .br .bs .bt .bw .by .bz .ca .cc .cd .cf .cg .ch .ci .ck .cl .cm .cn .co 
.cr .cu .cv .cx .cy .cz .de .dj .dk .dm .do .dz .ec .ee .eg .er .es .et .eu .fi .fj
 .fk .fm .fo .fr .ga .gd .ge .gf .gg .gh .gi .gl .gm .gn .gp .gq .gr .gs .gt .gu 
.gw .gy .hk .hm .hn .hr .ht .hu .id .ie .il .im .in .io .iq .ir .is .it .je .jm .jo 
.jp .ke .kg .kh .ki .km .kn .kr .kw .ky .kz .la .lb .lc .li .lk .lr .ls .lt .lu 
.lv .ly .ma .mc .md .mg .mh .mk .ml .mm .mn .mo .mp .mq .mr .ms .mt .mu .mv .mw 
.mx .my .mz .na .nc .ne .nf .ng .ni .nl .no .np .nr .nu .nz .om .pa .pe .pf .pg 
.ph .pk .pl .pm .pn .pr .ps .pt .pw .py .qa .re .ro .ru .rw .sa .sb .sc .sd .se 
.sg .sh .si .sk .sl .sm .sn .sr .st .sv .sy .sz .tc .td .tf .tg .th .tj .tk .tl
 .tm .tn .to .tr .tt .tv .tw .tz .ua .ug .uk .us .uy .uz .va .vc .ve .vg .vi .vn 
.vu .wf .ws .ye .yt .yu .za .zm .zw Reserved/unassigned: .eh .kp .me .rs .um 
Allocated/unused: .bv .gb .sj .so Phaseout: .su .tp Deleted/retired: .cs .dd 
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DMCA  Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running! Domain name From Wikipedia, 
the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Main article: Domain name system 
The term domain name has multiple related meanings: * A name that identifies a computer
 or computers on the internet. These names appear as a component of a Web site's URL, e.g. 
www.wikipedia.org. This type of domain name is also 
called a hostname. * The product that Domain name registrars 
provide to their customers. These names are often called registered domain names.
 * Names used for other purposes in the Domain Name System (DNS), for example the
 special name which follows the @ sign in an email address, or the Top-level domains 
like .com, or the names used by the Session Initiation Protocol (VoIP), or DomainKeys.
  History of the DNS The practice of using a name as a more human-legible abstraction
 of a machine's numerical address on the network predates even TCP/IP, and goes all the 
way to the ARPAnet era. Originally, each computer on the network retrieved a file called 
HOSTS.TXT from SRI (now SRI International) which mapped an address (such as 192.0.34.166)
 to a name (such as www.example.net.) The Hosts file still exists on most modern operating
 systems, either by default or through configuration, and allows users to specify 
an IP address to use for a hostname without checking the DNS. This file now serves 
primarily for troubleshooting DNS errors or for mapping local addresses to more
 organic names. Systems based on a HOSTS.TXT file have inherent limitations, because 
of the obvious requirement that every time a given computer's address changed, every 
computer that seeks to communicate with it would need an 
update to its Hosts file. The growth of networking called for a more scalable system:
 one that recorded a change in a host's address in one place only. Other hosts would
 learn about the change dynamically through a notification system, thus completing a 
globally accessible network of all hosts' names and their associated IP Addresses. 
Paul Mockapetris invented the DNS in 1983 and wrote the first implementation. The 
original specifications appear in RFC 882 and 883. In 1987, the publication of RFC
 1034 and RFC 1035 updated the DNS specification and made RFC 882 and RFC 883 obsolete. 
Several more-recent RFCs have proposed 
various extensions to the core DNS protocols. In 1984, four Berkeley students — 
Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle and Songnian Zhou — wrote the first UNIX i
mplementation, which was maintained by Ralph Campbell thereafter. In 1985, Kevin 
Dunlap of DEC significantly re-wrote the DNS implementation and renamed it BIND 
(Berkeley Internet Name Domain, previously: Berkeley Internet Name Daemon).
 Mike Karels, Phil Almquist and Paul Vixie have maintained BIND since then. BIND
 was ported to the Windows NT platform in the early 1990s. Due to its long history 
of security issues, several alternative nameserver/resolver programs 
have been written and distributed in recent years. [edit] How the DNS works 
in theory Domain names, arranged in a tree, cut into zones, each served by a 
nameserver. Domain names, arranged in a tree, cut into zones, each served by
 a nameserver. The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each 
node or leaf in the tree has one or more resource records, which hold information 
associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones. A zone consists
 of a collection of connected nodes authoritatively served by an authoritative DNS
 nameserver. (Note that a single nameserver can host several zones.) When a system 
administrator wants to let another administrator control a part of the domain name
 space within his or her zone of authority, he or she can delegate control to the
 other administrator. This splits a part of the old zone off into a new zone, which 
comes under the authority of the second administrator's nameservers. The old zone becomes 
no longer authoritative for what comes under the authority of the new zone. 
A resolver looks up the information associated with nodes. A resolver knows how 
to communicate with name servers by sending DNS requests, and heeding 
DNS responses. Resolving usually entails iterating through several name servers
 to find the needed information. Some resolvers function simplistically and can 
only communicate with a single name server. These simple resolvers rely on a
 recursing name server to perform the work of finding information for them. 
[edit] Understanding the parts of a domain name A domain name usually 
consists of two or more parts (technically labels), separated by dots.
 For example wikipedia.org. * The rightmost label conveys the top-level 
domain (for example, the address en.wikipedia.org has the top-level domain org). *
 Each label to the left specifies a subdivision or subdomain of the domain above it.
 Note that "subdomain" expresses relative dependence, not absolute dependence: for example, 
wikipedia.org comprises a subdomain of the org domain, and en.wikipedia.org 
comprises a subdomain of the domain wikipedia.org. In theory, this subdivision 
can go down to 127 levels deep, and each label can contain up to 63 characters,
 as long as the whole domain name does not exceed a total length of 255 characters.
 But in practice some domain registries have shorter limits than that. * A hostname
 refers to a domain name that has one or more associated IP addresses. For example, 
the en.wikipedia.org and wikipedia.org domains are both hostnames, but the org domain 
is not. The DNS consists of a hierarchical set of DNS servers. Each domain or subdomain 
has one or more authoritative DNS servers that publish information about that domain and
 the name servers of any domains "beneath" it. The hierarchy of authoritative DNS servers 
matches the hierarchy of domains. At the top of the hierarchy stand the root servers:
 the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a top-level domain name (TLD). [edit] 
The address resolution mechanism (This description deliberately uses the fictional 
.example TLD in accordance with the DNS guidelines themselves.) In theory a full host
 name may have several name segments, (e.g ahost.ofasubnet.ofabiggernet.inadomain.example).
 In practice, in the experience of the majority of public users of Internet services, 
full host names will frequently consist of just three segments (ahost.inadomain.example,
 and most often www.inadomain.example). For querying purposes, software interprets the name
 segment by segment, from right to left, using an iterative search procedure. At each step along 
the way, the program queries a corresponding DNS server to provide a pointer 
to the next server which it should consult.
 A DNS recurser consults 
three nameservers to resolve the address www.wikipedia.org. A
 DNS recurser consults three nameservers to resolve the address
 www.wikipedia.org. As originally envisaged, the process was as 
simple as: 1. the local system is pre-configured with the known
 addresses of the root servers in a file of root hints, which need to be updated
 periodically by the local administrator from a reliable source 
to be kept up to date with the changes which occur over time. 2. 
query one of the root servers to find the server authoritative 
for the next level down (so in the case of our simple hostname, 
a root server would be asked for the address of a server with
 detailed knowledge of the example top level domain). 3. 
querying this second server for the address of a DNS 
server with detailed knowledge of the second-level
 domain (inadomain.example in our example). 4. repeating the previous step to progress
down the name, until the final step which would, rather than generating the address of 
the next DNS server, return the final address sought. The diagram illustrates this 
process for the real host www.wikipedia.org. The mechanism in this simple form has 
a difficulty: it places a huge operating burden on the collective of root servers,
 with each and every search for an address starting by querying one of them. 
Being as critical as they are to the overall function of the system such heavy 
use would create an insurmountable bottleneck for trillions of queries laced every day.
 In practice there are two key additions to the mechanism.
 * Firstly, the DNS resolution process allows for local recording and subsequent
 consultation of the results of a query (or caching) for a period of time after a 
successful answer (the server providing the answer initially dictates the period 
of validity, which may vary from just seconds to days or even weeks). In our 
illustration, having found a list of addresses of servers capable of answering
 queries about the .example domain, the local resolver will not need to make the
 query again until the validity of the currently known list expires, and so on for 
all subsequent steps. Hence having successfully resolved the address of ahost
.inadomain.example it is not necessary to repeat the process for some time since
 the address already reached will be deemed reliable for a defined period, 
and resolution of anotherhost.anotherdomain.example can commence with already 
knowing which servers can answer queries for the .example domain. Caching
 significantly reduces the rate at which the most critical name servers have 
to respond to queries, adding the extra benefit that subsequent resolutions 
are not delayed by network transit times for the queries and responses. * 
Secondly, most domestic and small-business clients "hand off" address resolution 
to their ISP's DNS servers to perform the look-up process, thus allowing for the
 greatest benefit from those same ISPs having busy local caches serving a wide 
variety of queries and a large number of users. [edit] Circular dependencies 
and glue records Name servers in delegations appear listed by name, rather than
 by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS
 request to find out the IP address of the server
 to which it has been referred. Since this can introduce a circular dependency 
if the nameserver referred to is under the domain that it is authoritative of, it
 is occasionally necessary for the nameserver providing the delegation to also provide 
the IP address of the next nameserver. This record is called a glue record.
 For example, assume that the sub-domain 
en.wikipedia.org contains further sub-domains (such as something.en
.wikipedia.org) and that the authoritative nameserver for these lives
 at ns1.en.wikipedia.org. A computer trying to resolve something.en.
wikipedia.org will thus first have to resolve ns1.en.wikipedia.org. 
Since ns1 is also under the en.wikipedia.org 
subdomain, resolving ns1.en.wikipedia.org requires resolving ns1.en
.wikipedia.org which is exactly the circular dependency mentioned above.
 The dependency is broken by the glue record in the nameserver of 
wikipedia.org that provides the IP address of ns1.en.wikipedia.org 
directly to the requestor, enabling it to bootstrap the process by
 figuring out where ns1.
en.wikipedia.org is located. [edit] DNS in practice When an 
application (such as a web browser) tries to find the IP
 address of a domain name, it doesn't necessarily follow all of the 
ste
ps outlined in the Theory section above. We will first look at the concept
 of caching, and then outline the operation of DNS in "the real world." 
[edit] Caching and time to live 
Because of the huge volume of requests generated by a system like
 the DNS, the designers wished to provide a mechanism to reduce the load 
on individual DNS servers. The mechanism devised provided that when 
a DNS resolver (i.e. client) received a DNS response, it would cache 
that response for a given period of time. A value (set by the
 administrator of the DNS
 server handing out the response) called the time to live (TTL),

defines that period of time. Once a response goes into cache, the
 resolver will consult its cached (stored) answer; only when the
 TTL expires (or when an administrator manually flushes the
 response from the resolver's memory) will the resolver contact
 the DNS server for the same information. Generally, the Start
 of Authority (SOA) record specifies the time to live. The SOA 
record has the parameters: * Serial — the zone serial number,
 incremented when the zone file is modified, so the slave and 
secondary name servers know when the zone has been changed and 
should be reloaded. * Refresh — the number
 of seconds between update requests from secondary and slave
 name servers. * Retry — the number of seconds the secondary or 
slave will wait before retrying when the last attempt has failed.
 * Expire — the number of seconds a master or 
slave will wait before considering the data stale if it
 cannot reach the primary name server. * Minimum — previously 
used to determine the minimum TTL, this offers negative caching.
 (Newer versions of BIND (named) will accept the suffixes 'M','H'
,'D' or 'W', indicating a time-interval of minutes, hours, days
 and weeks respectively.) [edit] Caching time As a noteworthy 
consequence of this distributed and caching architecture,
 changes to the DNS do not always take effect
 immediately and globally. This is best explained with
 an example: If an administrator has set a TTL of 6 hours
 for the host www.wikipedia.org, and then changes the IP
 address to which www.wikipedia.org resolves at 12:01pm,
 the administrator must consider that a person who cached 
a response with the old IP address at 12:00pm will not consult the DNS server
 again until 6:00pm. The period between 12:01pm and 6:00pm
 in this example is called caching time, which is best defined as a period
 of time that begins when you make a change to a DNS record and ends after 
the maximum amount of time specified by the TTL expires. This essentially 
leads to an important logistical consideration when making changes to the DNS: 
not everyone is necessarily seeing the same thing you're seeing. RFC 1537
 helps to convey basic rules for how to set the TTL. Note that the term 
"propagation", although very widely used, does not describe the effects of 
caching well. Specifically, it implies that [1] when you make a DNS change,
 it somehow spreads to all other DNS servers (instead, other DNS 
servers check in with yours as needed), and [2] that you do not have control
 over the amount of time the record is cached (you control the TTL values for
 all DNS records in your domain, except your NS records and any authoritative DNS 
servers that use your domain name). Some resolvers may override TTL values,
 as the protocol supports caching for up to 68 years or no caching at all
. Negative caching (the non-existence of records) is determined by name
 servers authoritative for a zone which MUST include the SOA record when 
reporting no data of the requested type exists. The MINIMUM field of the 
SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL
 for the negative answer. RFC 2308 Many people incorrectly refer to a 
mysterious 48 hour or 72 hour propagation time when you make a DNS change.
 When one changes the NS records for one's domain or the IP addresses for
 hostnames of authoritative DNS servers using one's domain (if any),
 there can be a lengthy period of time before all DNS servers use the new information. 
This is because those records are handled by the zone parent
 DNS servers (for example, the .com DNS servers if your domain 
is example.com), which typically cache those records for 48 hours.
 However, those DNS changes will be immediately available for any 
DNS servers that do not have them cached. And, any DNS changes on
 your domain other than the NS records and authoritative 
DNS server names can be nearly instantaneous, if you choose for 
them to be (by lowering the TTL once or twice ahead of time, and
 waiting until the old TTL expires before making the change).
 [edit] DNS in the real world DNS resolving from program to OS
-resolver to ISP-resolver to greater system.
 DNS resolving from program to OS-resolver to ISP-resolver to
 greater system. Users generally do not communicate directly
 with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently
 in client applications such as web browsers (like Opera, Mozilla Firefox,
 Safari, Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer, etc.), mail clients 
(Outlook Express, Mozilla 
Thunderbird, etc.), and other Internet applications. When a request 
is made which necessitates a DNS lookup, such programs send a resolution 
request to the local DNS resolver in the operating system which in turn
 handles the communications required. The DNS resolver will almost 
invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can 
provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value 
in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does
 not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to a
 designated DNS server or servers. In the case of most home users,
 the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will 
usually supply this DNS server: 
such a user will either configure that server's address manually or
 allow DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have 
configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers
 will generally point to their own nameservers. This name server will 
then follow the process outlined above in DNS in 
theory, until it either successfully finds a result, or does not. It
 then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found 
a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands 
the result back to the software which initiated the request. [edit] Broken
 resolvers An additional level of complexity emerges when resolvers violate 
the rules of the DNS protocol. Some people have suggested that a number of 
large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules (presumably
 to allow them to run on less-expensive hardware than a fully compliant
 resolver), such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain
 name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond. As a final 
level of complexity, some applications such as Web browsers also have
 their own DNS cache, in order to reduce the use of the DNS resolver 
library itself. This practice can add extra difficulty to DNS debugging,
 as it obscures which data is fresh, or lies in which cache. These caches 
typically have very short caching times of the order of one minute. A notable exception is 
Internet Explorer; recent versions cache DNS records for half an hour.
[1] [edit] Other DNS applications The system outlined above provides a
 somewhat simplified scenario. The DNS includes several other functions: 
* Hostnames and IP addresses do not necessarily match on a one-to-one basis.
 Many hostnames may correspond to a single IP address: combined with virtual hosting,
 this allows a single machine to serve many web sites. Alternatively 
a single hostname may correspond to many IP addresses: this can facilitate 
fault tolerance and load distribution, and also allows a site to move physical 
location seamlessly. * There are many uses of DNS besides 
translating names to IP addresses. For instance, Mail transfer agents use DNS to find out where
 to deliver e-mail for a particular address. The domain to mail exchanger mapping 
provided by MX records accommodates another layer of fault tolerance and load 
distribution on top of the name to IP address mapping. * Sender Policy Framework 
and DomainKeys instead of creating own record types were designed to take 
advantage of another DNS record type, the TXT record. *
 To provide resilience in the event of computer failure, multiple 
DNS servers provide coverage of each domain. In particular, thirteen 
root servers exist worldwide. DNS programs or operating systems have the
 IP addresses of these servers built in. At least nominally, the USA hosts
 all but three of the root servers. However, because many root servers 
actually implement anycast, where many different computers can 
share the same IP address to deliver a single service over a large
 geographic region, most of the physical (rather than nominal) root
 servers now operate
 outside the USA. The DNS uses TCP and UDP on port 53 to serve requests.
 Almost all DNS queries consist of a single UDP request from the client
 followed by a single UDP reply from the server. TCP typically comes
 into play only when the response data size exceeds 512 bytes, or for 
such tasks as zone transfer. Some operating systems such as HP-UX are 
known to have resolver implementations that use TCP for all queries, 
even when UDP would suffice. [edit] Extensions to DNS EDNS is an extension 
of the DNS protocol which enhances the transport of DNS data in UDP packages,
 and adds support for expanding the space of request and response codes.
 It is described in RFC 2671. [edit] Implementations of DNS For a commented 
list of DNS server-side implementations, see Comparison of DNS server software. 
[edit] Standards * RFC 882 Concepts and Facilities (Deprecated by RFC 1034) * 
RFC 883 Domain Names: Implementation specification (Deprecated by RFC 1035) *
 RFC 1032 Domain administrators guide * RFC 1033 Domain administrators operations
 guide * RFC 1034 Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities. * RFC 1035 Domain Names
 - Implementation and Specification *
 RFC 1101 DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types * RFC 1123 Requirements 
for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support * RFC 1183 New DNS RR Definitions 
* RFC 1706 DNS NSAP Resource Records * RFC 1876 Location Information in the DNS 
(LOC) * RFC 1886 DNS Extensions to support IP version 6 * RFC 1912
 Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors * RFC 1995 Incremental
 Zone Transfer in DNS * RFC 1996 A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of
 Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY) * RFC 2136 Dynamic Updates in the domain name 
system (DNS UPDATE) * RFC 2181 Clarifications to the DNS Specification * 
RFC 2182 Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers * RFC 2308
 Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE) * RFC 2317 Classless IN
-ADDR.ARPA delegation * RFC 2671 Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0) *
 RFC 2672 Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection (DNAME record) * RFC 2782 A
 DNS RR for specifying the location of services (DNS SRV) * RFC 2845 
Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG) * RFC 2874 DNS Extensions to Support
 IPv6 Address Aggregation and Renumbering * RFC 3403 Dynamic Delegation
 Discovery System (DDDS) (NAPTR records) * RFC 3696 Application
 Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names * RFC 4398
 Storing Certificates in the Domain Name System * RFC 4408 Sender
 Policy Framework (SPF) (SPF records) [edit] Types of DNS records 
Important categories of data stored in the DNS include the following: 
* An A record or address record maps a hostname to a 32-bit IPv4 address.
 * An AAAA record or IPv6 address record maps a hostname to a 128-bit IPv6 
address. * A CNAME record or canonical name record is an alias of one name
 to another.
 The A record that the alias is pointing to can be either local or remote 
- on a foreign name server. This is useful when running multiple services 
(like an FTP and a webserver) from a single IP address. Each service can 
then have its own entry in DNS (like ftp.example.com and www.example.com.)
 * An MX record or mail exchange record maps a domain name to a list of
 mail exchange servers for that domain. * A PTR record or pointer record
 maps an IPv4 address to the canonical name for that host. Setting up a 
PTR record for a hostname in the in-addr.arpa domain that corresponds to
 an IP address implements reverse DNS lookup for
 that address. For example (at the time of writing), www.icann.net has 
the IP address 192.0.34.164, but a PTR record maps 164.34.0.192.in-addr
.arpa to its canonical name, referrals.icann.org. * An NS record or name 
server record maps a domain name to a list of DNS servers authoritative
 for that domain. Delegations depend
 on NS records. * An SOA record or start of authority record specifies the 
DNS server providing authoritative information about an Internet domain, the
 email of the domain administrator, the domain serial number, and several
 timers relating to refreshing the zone. * An SRV record is a generalized 
service location record. * A TXT record allows an administrator to insert 
arbitrary text into a DNS record. For example, this record is used to 
implement the Sender Policy Framework and DomainKeys specifications. *
 NAPTR records ("Naming Authority Pointer") are a newer type of DNS 
record that support regular expression based rewriting. Other types 
of records simply provide information (for example, a LOC record gives 
the physical location of a host), or experimental data (for example, a 
WKS record gives a list of servers offering some well known service such
 as HTTP or POP3 for a domain). [edit] Internationalised domain names 
Main article: Internationalized domain name While domain names in the 
DNS have no restrictions on the characters they use and can include non-ASCII
 characters, the same is not true for host names. Host names are the 
names most people see and use for things like e-mail and web browsing.
 Host names are restricted to a small subset of the ASCII character set 
that includes the Roman alphabet in upper and lower case, the digits 0
 through 9, the dot, and the hyphen. (See RFC 3696 section 2 for details.) 
This prevented the representation of names and words of many languages natively.
 ICANN has approved the Punycode-based IDNA system, which maps Unicode 
strings into the valid DNS character set, as a workaround to this issue
. Some registries have adopted IDNA. [edit] Security issues in DNS DNS 
was not originally designed with security in mind, and thus has a number 
of security issues. DNS responses are traditionally not cryptographically
 signed, leading to many attack possibilities; DNSSEC modifies DNS to add 
support for cryptographically signed responses. There are various extensions 
to support securing zone transfer information as well. Some domain names
 can spoof other, similar-looking domain names. For example, "paypal.com"
 and "paypa1.com" are different names, yet users may be unable to tell the 
difference. This problem is much more serious in systems that support 
internationalized domain names, since many characters that are different 
(from the point of view of ISO 10646) appear identical on typical computer
 screens. [edit] Legal users of domains [edit] Registrant No one in the world
 really "owns" a domain name except the Network Information Centre (NIC),
 or domain name registry.[citation needed] Most of the NICs in the world 
receive an annual fee from a legal user in order for the legal user to 
utilize the domain name (i.e. a sort of a leasing agreement exists, subject
 to the registry's terms and conditions). Depending on the various naming 
convention of the registries, legal users become commonly known as "registrants" 
or as "domain holders". ICANN holds a complete list of domain registries in the 
world. One can find the legal user of a domain name by looking in the WHOIS database
 held by most domain registries. For most of the more than 240 
country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries 
hold the authoritative WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiry 
dates etc.) For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC holds the authoritative 
WHOIS to a .DE domain name. However, some domain registries,
 such as for .COM, .ORG, .INFO, etc., use a registry-registrar
 model. There are hundreds of Domain Name Registrars that actually
 perform the domain name registration with the end-user (see lists
 at ICANN or VeriSign). By using this method of distribution, the 
registry only has to manage the relationship with the registrar, 
and the registrar maintains the relationship with the end-users, 
or 'registrants'. For .COM, .NET domain names, the domain registries, 
VeriSign holds a basic WHOIS (registrar and name servers etc.) 
 They are sometimes colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to by
 marketers as "web addresses". [edit] Other-level domains In addition
 to the top-level domains, there are second-level domain (SLD) names.
 These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other 
top-level domains. As an example, in the domain en.wikipedia.org,
 "wikipedia" is the second-level domain. On the next level are third-level
 domains. These domains are immediately to the left of a second-level domain
. In the en.wikipedia.org example, "en" is a third-level domain. T
here can be fourth and fifth level domains and so on, with virtually 
no limitation. An example of a working domain with five levels is 
sos.state.oh.us. Each level is separated by a dot or period symbol
 between them. Domains of third or higher level are also known as
 subdomains, though this term technically applies to a domain of 
any level, since even a top-level domain is a "subdomain" of the 
"root" domain (a "zeroth-level" domain that is designated by a dot
 alone). Traditionally, the second level domain was the name of the company or the 
name used on the internet. The third level was commonly used to 
designate a particular host server. Therefore, ftp.wikipedia.org 
might be an FTP server, www.wikipedia.org would be a World Wide W
eb Server, and mail.wikipedia.org could be an email server. 
Modern technology now allows multiple servers to serve a single
 subdomain, or multiple protocols or domains to be served by a 
single computer. Therefore, subdomains may or may not have any 
real purpose. [edit] Official assignment ICANN (Internet Corporation
 for Assigned Names and Numbers) has overall responsibility for 
managing the DNS. It controls the root domain, delegating control 
over each top-level domain to a domain name registry. For ccTLDs, 
the domain registry is typically controlled by the government of t
hat country. ICANN has a consultation role in these domain registr
ies but is in no position to regulate the terms and conditions of
 how a domain name is allocated or who allocates it in each of these
 country level domain registries. On the other hand, generic 
top-level domains (gTLDs) are governed directly under ICANN 
which means all terms and conditions are defined by ICANN with the 
cooperation of the gTLD registries. Domain names which are theoretically 
leased can be considered in the same way as real estate, due to a significant 
impact on online brand building, advertising, search engine optimization, etc. 
A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registrations, with a variety 
of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains are hosted
 on their site in a framework or portal, with advertising wrapped around the user's content, revenue 
from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. When the DNS was new, domain registrations were
 free. A domain owner can generally give away or sell infinite subdomains of their domain, e.g. the
 owner of example.edu could provide domains that are subdomains, such as foo.example.edu and foo.bar
.example.edu. [edit] Uses and abuses As domain names became attractive to marketers, rather than just
 the technical audience for which they were originally intended, they began to be used in manners that 
in many cases did not fit in their intended structure. As originally planned, the structure of domain names 
followed a strict hierarchy in which the top level domain indicated the type of organization 
(commercial, governmental, etc.), and addresses would be nested down to third, fourth, or further
 levels to express complex structures, where, for instance, branches, departments, and subsidiaries of
 a parent organization would have addresses which were subdomains of the parent domain. Also, hostnames
 were intended to correspond to actual physical machines on the network, generally with only one name
 per machine. However, once the World Wide Web became popular, site operators frequently wished to have
 memorable addresses, regardless of whether they fit properly in the structure; thus, since the .com domain 
was the most popular and memorable, even noncommercial sites would often get addresses under it, and sites of 
all sorts wished to have second-level domain registrations even if they were parts of a larger entity where a 
logical subdomain would have made sense (e.g., abcnews.com instead of news.abc.com). A Web site found at
 http://www.example.org/ will often be advertised without the "http://", and 
in most cases can be reached by just entering "example.org" into a Web browser. 
In the case of a .com, the Web site can sometimes be reached by just entering 
"example" (depending on browser versions and configuration settings, which vary 
in how they interpret incomplete addresses). The popularity of domain names also
 led to uses which were regarded as abusive by established companies with trademark
 rights; this was known as cybersquatting, in which somebody took a name that resembled 
a trademark in order to profit from traffic to that address. To combat this, various laws 
and policies were enacted to allow abusive registrations to be forcibly transferred, but
 these were sometimes themselves abused by overzealous companies committing reverse domain
 hijacking against domain users who had legitimate grounds to hold their names, such as their
 being generic words as well as trademarks in a particular context, or their use in the context 
of fan or protest sites with free speech rights of their own. Laws that specifically address domain 
name conflicts include the Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act in the United States and the
 Trademarks Act, 1999, in India. Alternatively, domain registrants are bound by contract under the UDRP
 to comply with mandatory arbitration proceedings should someone challenge their 
ownership of the domain name. [edit] Generic domain names — problems arising out 
of unregulated name selection Within a particular top-level domain, parties are generally free
 to select an unallocated domain name as their own on a first come, first served basis, resulting 
in Harris's lament, all the good ones are taken. For generic or commonly used names, this may sometimes
 lead to the use of a domain name which is inaccurate or misleading. This problem can be seen with regard
 to the ownership or control of domain names for a generic product or service. By way of illustration, there
 has been tremendous growth in the number and size of literary festivals around the world 
in recent years. In this context, currently a generic domain name such as literary.org is 
available to the first literary festival organisation which is able to obtain registration,
 even if the festival in question is very young or obscure. Some critics would argue that
 there is greater amenity in reserving such domain names for the use of, for example, a
 regional or umbrella grouping of festivals. Related issues may also arise in relation to 
non-commercial domain names. [edit] Unconventional domain names Due to the rarity of one-word dot-com domain 
names, many unconventional domain names, domain hacks, have been gaining popularity. They make use of the 
top-level domain as an integral part of the Web site's title. Two popular domain hack Web sites are del.icio.us 
and blo.gs, which spell out "delicious" and "blogs", respectively. Unconventional domain names are
 also used to create unconventional email addresses. Non-working examples that spell 'James' are
 j@m.es and j@mes.com, which use the domain names m.es (of Spain's .es) and mes.com, respectively. 
[edit] Commercial resale of domain names An economic effect of the widespread usage of domain names 
has been the resale market for generic domain names that has sprung up in the last decade. 
Certain domains, especially those related to business, gambling, pornography, and other commercially 
lucrative fields of digital world trade have become very much in demand to corporations and entrepreneurs
 due to their intrinsic value in attracting clients. The most expensive Internet domain name to date,
 according to Guinness World Records, is business.com which was resold in 1999 for $7.5 million,
 but this was $7.5 million in stock options, not in cash. Later the stock was valued at, not sold,
 for $2 million and may even be worth less today Newsweek [1]. There are disputes about the high
 values of domain names claimed and the actual prices of many sales. Another high value domain name, sex.com,
 was stolen from its rightful owner by means of a forged transfer instruction via fax. During the height of the 
dot-com era, the domain was earning millions of dollars per month in advertising revenue from the large influx
 of visitors that arrived daily. Two long-running U.S. lawsuits resulted, one against the thief and one against 
the domain registrar VeriSign[2]. In one of the cases, Kremen v. Network Solutions, 
the court found in favor of the plaintiff, leading to an unprecedented ruling that classified domain names 
as property, granting them the same legal protections. In 1999, Microsoft traded the valuable name Bob.com 
with internet entrepreneur Bob Kerstein for the name Windows2000.com which was the name of their new operating 
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